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Home / Life Story of 21 Century Rebels in Literature and Art

Life Story of 21 Century Rebels in Literature and Art

Written work of art

The Tale of Genji, Beowulf, Epic of Gilgamesh, Pāli Canon, The Grapes of Wrath, Things Fall Apart, State of war and Peace, Thousand and One Nights, Cien Años de Soledad, Dresden Codex, Xiping Rock Classics

Literature broadly is any collection of written piece of work, but it is also used more than narrowly for writings specifically considered to exist an fine art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry.[one] In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include oral literature, much of which has been transcribed.[2] Literature is a method of recording, preserving, and transmitting knowledge and entertainment, and can also have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political part.

Literature, as an art course, tin can also include works in diverse non-fiction genres, such as biography, diaries, memoir, letters, and the essay. Inside its broad definition, literature includes non-fictional books, articles or other printed information on a particular subject field.[3] [4]

Etymologically, the term derives from Latin literatura/litteratura "learning, a writing, grammer," originally "writing formed with letters," from litera/littera "letter".[five] In spite of this, the term has also been practical to spoken or sung texts.[vi] [seven] Developments in impress engineering science accept allowed an ever-growing distribution and proliferation of written works, which now includes electronic literature.

Literature is classified according to whether it is poetry, prose or drama, and such works are categorized according to historical periods, or their adherence to certain artful features, or genre.

Definitions [edit]

Definitions of literature take varied over time.[eight] In Western Europe, prior to the 18th century, literature denoted all books and writing literature can be seen equally returning to older, more inclusive notions, then that cultural studies, for instance, include, in addition to canonical works, popular and minority genres. The word is also used in reference non-written works: to "oral literature" and "the literature of preliterate culture".

A value judgment definition of literature considers information technology as consisting solely of high quality writing that forms part of the belles-lettres ("fine writing") tradition.[9] An instance of this in the (1910–11) Encyclopædia Britannica that classified literature equally "the best expression of the all-time thought reduced to writing".[x]

History [edit]

Oral literature [edit]

The use of the term "literature" here is a little problematic because of its origins in the Latin littera, "alphabetic character," essentially writing. Alternatives such as "oral forms" and "oral genres" have been suggested simply the word literature is widely used.[11]

Oral literature is an ancient human tradition found in "all corners of the earth".[12] Mod archaeology has been unveiling show of the human efforts to preserve and transmit arts and noesis that depended completely or partially on an oral tradition, beyond various cultures:

The Judeo-Christian Bible reveals its oral traditional roots; medieval European manuscripts are penned by performing scribes; geometric vases from primitive Hellenic republic mirror Homer's oral style. (...) Indeed, if these final decades of the millennium have taught united states of america anything, information technology must be that oral tradition never was the other we accused it of being; it never was the primitive, preliminary engineering of communication nosotros thought it to exist. Rather, if the whole truth is told, oral tradition stands out as the single well-nigh dominant communicative technology of our species every bit both a historical fact and, in many areas nonetheless, a gimmicky reality.[12]

The primeval verse is believed to have been recited or sung, employed as a manner of remembering history, genealogy, and law.[thirteen]

In Asia, the transmission of folklore, mythologies likewise as scriptures in ancient India, in different Indian religions, was past oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques.[14]

The early Buddhist texts are besides generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first past comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is besides consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally beyond generations, without being written downward.[ commendation needed ] According to Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a literate society".[ commendation needed ]

Australian Aboriginal civilisation has thrived on oral traditions and oral histories passed downwards through thousands of years. In a report published in Feb 2020, new evidence showed that both Budj Bim and Tower Hill volcanoes erupted between 34,000 and 40,000 years agone.[15] Significantly, this is a "minimum age constraint for human presence in Victoria", and also could be interpreted as bear witness for the oral histories of the Gunditjmara people, an Ancient Australian people of s-western Victoria, which tell of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in beingness.[16] An axe plant underneath volcanic ash in 1947 had already proven that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower Hill.[xv]

All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the primeval literature was completely so.[17] Homer's epic poesy, states Michael Gagarin, was largely composed, performed and transmitted orally.[18] Every bit folklores and legends were performed in front of distant audiences, the singers would substitute the names in the stories with local characters or rulers to give the stories a local flavor and thus connect with the audience, only making the historicity embedded in the oral tradition as unreliable.[19] The lack of surviving texts most the Greek and Roman religious traditions take led scholars to assume that these were ritualistic and transmitted every bit oral traditions, only some scholars disagree that the complex rituals in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were an exclusive product of an oral tradition.[20]

Writing systems are not known to have existed amongst Native Due north Americans before contact with Europeans. Oral storytelling traditions flourished in a context without the use of writing to record and preserve history, scientific knowledge, and social practices.[21] While some stories were told for entertainment and leisure, nigh functioned as practical lessons from tribal feel practical to immediate moral, social, psychological, and environmental issues.[22] Stories fuse fictional, supernatural, or otherwise exaggerated characters and circumstances with existent emotions and morals equally a ways of teaching. Plots often reverberate real life situations and may be aimed at particular people known past the story'due south audience. In this way, social force per unit area could be exerted without directly causing embarrassment or social exclusion.[23] For example, rather than yelling, Inuit parents might deter their children from wandering too shut to the water's edge past telling a story nearly a sea monster with a pouch for children within its attain.[24]

Run across also African literature#Oral literature

Oratory [edit]

Oratory or the fine art of public speaking "was for long considered a literary fine art".[iii] From Aboriginal Greece to the late 19th century, rhetoric played a fundamental function in Western educational activity in preparation orators, lawyers, counsellors, historians, statesmen, and poets.[25] [note i]

Writing [edit]

Around the 4th millennium BC, the complication of trade and administration in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent grade.[27] Though in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have already emerged because of the need to record historical and ecology events. Subsequent innovations included more than compatible, predictable, legal systems, sacred texts, and the origins of modern practices of scientific research and knowledge-consolidation, all largely reliant on portable and hands reproducible forms of writing.

Early written literature [edit]

Aboriginal Egyptian literature,[28] forth with Sumerian literature, are considered the world's oldest literatures.[29] The chief genres of the literature of ancient Arab republic of egypt—didactic texts, hymns and prayers, and tales—were written about entirely in poesy;[30] By the Old Kingdom (26th century BC to 22nd century BC), literary works included funerary texts, epistles and letters, hymns and poems, and commemorative autobiographical texts recounting the careers of prominent administrative officials. It was not until the early Eye Kingdom (21st century BC to 17th century BC) that a narrative Egyptian literature was created.[31]

Many works of early periods, even in narrative course, had a covert moral or didactic purpose, such every bit the Sanskrit Panchatantra.200 BC – 300 Advertisement, based on older oral tradition.[32] [33] Drama and satire as well adult as urban civilization provided a larger public audience, and later readership, for literary production. Lyric poetry (as opposed to epic poetry) was often the speciality of courts and aristocratic circles, particularly in E Asia where songs were nerveless past the Chinese elite as poems, the most notable being the Shijing or Book of Songs (1046–c.600 BC), .[34] [35] [36]

Inscribed hieroglyphics cover an obelisk in foreground. A stone statue is in background.

In ancient People's republic of china, early on literature was primarily focused on philosophy, historiography, military machine scientific discipline, agriculture, and poetry. China, the origin of modern newspaper making and woodblock printing, produced the earth's first impress cultures.[37] Much of Chinese literature originates with the Hundred Schools of Idea period that occurred during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (769‒269 BC).[38] The most important of these include the Classics of Confucianism, of Daoism, of Mohism, of Legalism, equally well as works of military science (e.thou. Sun Tzu's The Art of War, c.5th century BC)) and Chinese history (e.yard. Sima Qian'southward Records of the Grand Historian, c.94 BC). Ancient Chinese literature had a heavy emphasis on historiography, with frequently very detailed courtroom records. An exemplary piece of narrative history of ancient China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BC, and attributed to the bullheaded fifth-century BC historian Zuo Qiuming.[39]

In ancient India, literature originated from stories that were originally orally transmitted. Early genres included drama, fables, sutras and ballsy poetry. Sanskrit literature begins with the Vedas, dating back to 1500–1000 BC, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India.[40] [41] The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas (vedic collections) date to roughly 1500–1000 BC, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, likewise every bit the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000‒500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid-second to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[42] The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two near influential Indian epics, the Mahabharata [43] [44] and the Ramayana,[45] with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century Ad. Other major literary works are Ramcharitmanas[46] & Krishnacharitmanas.

The earliest known Greek writings are Mycenaean (c.1600–1100 BC), written in the Linear B syllabary on dirt tablets. These documents contain prosaic records largely concerned with trade (lists, inventories, receipts, etc.); no real literature has been discovered.[47] [48] Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, the original decipherers of Linear B, state that literature almost certainly existed in Mycenaean Hellenic republic,[48] just information technology was either not written downwards or, if it was, information technology was on parchment or wooden tablets, which did not survive the devastation of the Mycenaean palaces in the twelfth century BC.[48] Homer'due south, ballsy poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, are central works of aboriginal Greek literature. It is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some betoken around the tardily eighth or early seventh century BC.[49] Modernistic scholars consider these accounts legendary.[50] [51] [52] About researchers believe that the poems were originally transmitted orally.[53] From antiquity until the nowadays mean solar day, the influence of Homeric epic on Western civilization has been bang-up, inspiring many of its most famous works of literature, music, art and film.[54] The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and teaching; to Plato, Homer was simply the i who "has taught Hellenic republic" – ten Hellada pepaideuken.[55] [56] Hesiod'south Works and Days (c.700 BC) and Theogony, are some of the earliest, and most influential, of ancient Greek literature. Classical Greek genres included philosophy, poetry, historiography, comedies and dramas. Plato (428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC) authored philosophical texts that are the foundation of Western philosophy, Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC) and Pindar were influential lyric poets, and Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) ) and Thucydides were early Greek historians. Although drama was popular in ancient Greece, of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a express number of plays past iii authors nevertheless exist: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The plays of Aristophanes (c. 446 – c. 386 BC) provide the but real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, the earliest form of Greek Comedy, and are in fact used to define the genre.[57]

The Hebrew religious text, the Torah, is widely seen as a production of the Western farsi period (539–333 BC, probably 450–350 BC).[58] This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.[59] This represents a major source of Christianity's Bible, which has been a major influence on Western literature.[60]

The starting time of Roman literature dates to 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek play.[61] Literature in latin would flourish for the next half-dozen centuries, and includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings.

The Qur'an (610 Advertizement to 632 Ad)[62] ), the primary holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arab language, and marked the offset of Islamic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.[23] [63] Equally Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Standard arabic.[23]

Theological works in Latin were the ascendant form of literature in Europe typically plant in libraries during the Middle Ages. Western Vernacular literature includes the Poetic Edda and the sagas, or heroic epics, of Iceland, the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, and the German Song of Hildebrandt. A later form of medieval fiction was the romance, an adventurous and sometimes magical narrative with stiff pop entreatment.[64]

Controversial, religious, political and instructional literature proliferated during the European Renaissance every bit a result of the Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing printing[65] effectually 1440, while the Medieval romance developed into the novel,[66]

Publishing [edit]

Publishing became possible with the invention of writing, but became more practical with the invention of printing. Prior to printing, distributed works were copied manually, by scribes.

The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng made movable blazon of earthenware c. 1045. Then c.1450, separately Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely available.

Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as incunables or incunabula. "A human being built-in in 1453, the year of the autumn of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth yr on a lifetime in which about viii million books had been printed, more perchance than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."[67]

Eventually, press enabled other forms of publishing likewise books. The history of mod newspaper publishing started in Deutschland in 1609, with publishing of magazines post-obit in 1663.

University discipline [edit]

In England [edit]

In England in the tardily 1820s, growing political and social awareness, "particularly among the utilitarians and Benthamites, promoted the possibility of including courses in English literary study in the newly formed London University". This further adult into the idea of the study of literature being "the ideal carrier for the propagation of the humanist cultural myth of a welleducated, culturally harmonious nation".[68]

America [edit]

American Literature (academic subject field)

Women and literature [edit]

The widespread instruction of women was not mutual until the nineteenth century, and because of this literature until recently was mostly male dominated.[69]

George Sand was an thought. She has a unique identify in our historic period.
Others are great men ... she was a great woman.

Victor Hugo, Les funérailles de George Sand [70]

There are few women poets writing in English, whose names are remembered, until the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century some names that stand out are Emily Brontë, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Emily Dickinson (come across American verse). Only while generally women are absent-minded from the European cannon of Romantic literature, there is ane notable exception, the French novelist and memoirist Amantine Dupin (1804 – 1876) best known by her pen name George Sand.[71] [72] 1 of the more popular writers in Europe in her lifetime,[73] being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s,[74] Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European Romantic era. Jane Austen (1775 – 1817) is the start major English woman novelist, while Aphra Behn is an early female dramatist.

Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded between 1901 and 2020 to 117 individuals: 101 men and sixteen women. Selma Lagerlöf (1858 – 1940) was the first adult female to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, which she was awarded in 1909. Additionally, she was the get-go woman to be granted a membership in The Swedish University in 1914.[75]

Feminist scholars accept since the twentieth century sought aggrandize the literary catechism to include more women writers.

Children'southward literature [edit]

A separate genre of children's literature only began to sally in the eighteenth century, with the evolution of the concept of childhood.[76] : x–11 The primeval of these books were educational books, books on conduct, and unproblematic ABCs—often decorated with animals, plants, and anthropomorphic messages.[77]

Aesthetics [edit]

Literary theory [edit]

A central question of literary theory is "what is literature?" – although many contemporary theorists and literary scholars believe either that "literature" cannot be defined or that it tin can refer to any utilize of language.[78]

Literary fiction [edit]

Literary fiction is a term used to describe fiction that explores any facet of the human condition, and may involve social commentary. Information technology is often regarded as having more than artistic merit than genre fiction, peculiarly the most commercially oriented types, only this has been contested in recent years, with the serious study of genre fiction inside universities.[79]

The following, by the laurels-winning British author William Boyd on the brusque story, might exist practical to all prose fiction:

[curt stories] seem to answer something very deep in our nature as if, for the duration of its telling, something special has been created, some essence of our experience extrapolated, some temporary sense has been made of our common, turbulent journeying towards the grave and oblivion.[eighty]

The very best in literature is annually recognized by the Nobel Prize in Literature, which is awarded to an writer from whatever country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal management" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning).[81] [82]

The value of imaginative literature [edit]

Some researchers advise that literary fiction can play a role in an individual's psychological development.[83] Psychologists accept likewise been using literature equally a therapeutic tool.[84] [85] Psychologist Hogan argues for the value of the time and emotion that a person devotes to understanding a character's state of affairs in literature;[86] that it tin unite a big community by provoking universal emotions, equally well every bit allowing readers admission to different cultures, and new emotional experiences.[87] One written report, for instance, suggested that the presence of familiar cultural values in literary texts played an important impact on the performance of minority students.[88]

Psychologist Maslow's ideas aid literary critics sympathise how characters in literature reverberate their personal culture and the history.[89] The theory suggests that literature helps an individual'southward struggle for cocky-fulfilment.[90] [91]

The influence of religious texts [edit]

Faith has had a major influence on literature, through works like the Vedas, the Torah, the Bible,[92] and the Qur'an.[93] [94] [95]

The King James Version of the Bible has been chosen "the most influential version of the most influential book in the globe, in what is now its most influential linguistic communication", "the most of import book in English religion and civilisation", and "the most celebrated volume in the English-speaking world"[ citation needed ] - principally because of its literary style and widespread distribution. Prominent atheist figures such as the belatedly Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised the King James Version every bit being "a giant step in the maturing of English literature" and "a smashing piece of work of literature", respectively, with Dawkins then adding, "A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian".[96] [97]

Societies in which preaching has not bad importance, and those in which religious structures and authorities have a near-monopoly of reading and writing and/or a censorship role, may impart a religious gloss to much of the literature those societies produce or retain - as for example in the European Middle Ages. The traditions of close study of religious texts has furthered the development of techniques and theories in literary studies.

Types of literature [edit]

Poesy [edit]

Poetry has traditionally been distinguished from prose by its greater use of the aesthetic qualities of linguistic communication, including musical devices such as assonance, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm, and by being set in lines and verses rather than paragraphs, and more recently its use of other typographical elements.[98] [99] [100] This distinction is complicated past various hybrid forms such as sound poesy, concrete poetry and prose poem,[101] and more than generally by the fact that prose possesses rhythm.[102] Abram Lipsky refers to information technology as an "open up secret" that "prose is not distinguished from poetry past lack of rhythm".[103]

Prior to the 19th century, poesy was usually understood to be something set in metrical lines: "any kind of subject area consisting of Rhythm or Verses".[98] Maybe as a result of Aristotle's influence (his Poetics), "verse" before the 19th century was usually less a technical designation for verse than a normative category of fictive or rhetorical art.[ clarification needed ] [104] Every bit a grade it may pre-date literacy, with the earliest works beingness composed within and sustained by an oral tradition;[105] [106] hence it constitutes the earliest example of literature.

Prose [edit]

As noted above, prose generally makes far less utilise of the aesthetic qualities of language than poesy.[99] [100] [107] Yet, developments in mod literature, including complimentary verse and prose poesy have tended to blur the differences, and American poet T.S. Eliot suggested that while: "the distinction between poesy and prose is clear, the distinction between poetry and prose is obscure".[108] In that location are verse novels, a type of narrative poetry in which a novel-length narrative is told through the medium of verse rather than prose. Eugene Onegin (1831) by Alexander Pushkin is the most famous example.[109]

On the historical development of prose, Richard Graff notes that "[In the example of ancient Greece] contempo scholarship has emphasized the fact that formal prose was a comparatively late development, an "invention" properly associated with the classical catamenia".[110]

Latin was a major influence on the development of prose in many European countries. Especially important was the great Roman orator Cicero.[111] It was the lingua franca amid literate Europeans until quite recent times, and the keen works of Descartes (1596 – 1650), Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626), and Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677) were published in Latin. Amongst the final important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772), Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727).

Novel [edit]

Sculpture in Berlin depicting a stack of books on which are inscribed the names of keen German writers.

A novel is a long fictional prose narrative. In English, the term emerged from the Romance languages in the tardily 15th century, with the pregnant of "news"; it came to bespeak something new, without a distinction between fact or fiction.[112] The romance is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a fictitious narrative in prose or poesy; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modernistic state of society".[113] Other European languages practise not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo",[114] indicates the proximity of the forms.[115]

Although there are many historical prototypes, then-chosen "novels before the novel",[116] the modern novel course emerges tardily in cultural history—roughly during the eighteenth century.[117] Initially subject to much criticism, the novel has caused a dominant position amidst literary forms, both popularly and critically.[115] [118] [119]

Novella [edit]

The publisher Melville House classifies the novella as "too curt to be a novel, too long to be a short story".[120] Publishers and literary award societies typically consider a novella to exist between 17,000 and 40,000 words.[121]

Short story [edit]

A dilemma in defining the "brusk story" as a literary form is how to, or whether one should, distinguish it from whatsoever short narrative and its contested origin,[122] that include the Bible, and Edgar Allan Poe.[123]

Graphic novel [edit]

Graphic novels and comic books present stories told in a combination of artwork, dialogue, and text.

Electronic literature [edit]

Electronic literature is a literary genre consisting of digital works

Nonfiction [edit]

Common literary examples of nonfiction include, the essay; travel literature and nature writing; biography, autobiography and memoir; journalism; letters; journals; history, philosophy, economic science; scientific, and technical writings.[4] [124]

Nonfiction can fall within the broad category of literature as "whatsoever collection of written work", but some works fall within the narrower definition "past virtue of the excellence of their writing, their originality and their general aesthetic and creative merits".[125]

Drama [edit]

Drama is literature intended for performance.[126] The grade is combined with music and trip the light fantastic toe in opera and musical theatre (see libretto). A play is a written dramatic piece of work by a playwright that is intended for performance in a theatre; it comprises chiefly dialogue between characters. A cupboard drama, by contrast, is written to exist read rather than to be performed; the meaning of which tin can be realized fully on the page.[127] Nearly all drama took verse class until comparatively recently.

The primeval form of which there exists substantial noesis is Greek drama. This adult as a performance associated with religious and civic festivals, typically enacting or developing upon well-known historical, or mythological themes,

In the twentieth century scripts written for non-stage media take been added to this form, including radio, television and pic.

Police force [edit]

Law and literature [edit]

The constabulary and literature motility focuses on the interdisciplinary connection betwixt law and literature.

Copyright [edit]

Copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive right to brand copies of a creative work, ordinarily for a limited time.[128] [129] [130] [131] [132] The artistic work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, only not the thought itself.[133] [134] [135]

United Kingdom [edit]

Literary works have been protected by copyright police force from unauthorized reproduction since at to the lowest degree 1710.[136] Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean "whatever piece of work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and appropriately includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer programme, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database."[137]

Literary works are all works of literature; that is all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works).[138]

United states of america [edit]

The copyright law of the United States has a long and complicated history, dating dorsum to colonial times. It was established as federal law with the Copyright Act of 1790. This act was updated many times, including a major revision in 1976.

European Wedlock [edit]

The copyright law of the European Marriage is the copyright law applicative within the European Wedlock. Copyright police is largely harmonized in the Union, although country to land differences exist. The body of law was implemented in the European union through a number of directives, which the fellow member states need to enact into their national law. The master copyright directives are the Copyright Term Directive, the Data Society Directive and the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Unmarried Marketplace. Copyright in the Union is furthermore dependent on international conventions to which the European Wedlock is a member (such as the TRIPS Agreement and conventions to which all Member States are parties (such as the Berne Convention)).

Copyright in communist countries [edit]

Copyright in Nippon [edit]

Nippon was a political party to the original Berne convention in 1899, then its copyright law is in sync with most international regulations. The convention protected copyrighted works for 50 years after the writer's death (or 50 years later publication for unknown authors and corporations). However, in 2004 Japan extended the copyright term to 70 years for cinematographic works. At the terminate of 2018, every bit a result of the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations, the lxx year term was applied to all works.[139] This new term is not applied retroactively; works that had entered the public domain between 1999 and 2018 by expiration would remain in the public domain.

Censorship [edit]

Is a ways employed by states, religious organizations, educational institutions, etc, to control what can be portrayed, spoken, performed, or written.[140] Generally such bodies attempt to ban works for political reasons, or because they deal with other controversial matters such as race, or sexual activity.[141]

A notorious case of censorship is James Joyce's novel Ulysses, which has been described by Russian-American novelist Vladimir Nabokov every bit a "divine work of art" and the greatest masterpiece of 20th century prose.[142] It was banned in the United States from 1921 until 1933 on the grounds of obscenity. Present it is a cardinal literary text in English literature courses, throughout the globe.[143]

Awards [edit]

In that location are numerous awards recognizing accomplishment and contribution in literature. Given the diversity of the field, awards are typically limited in scope, commonly on: class, genre, language, nationality and output (due east.g. for first-time writers or debut novels).[144]

The Nobel Prize in Literature was one of the six Nobel Prizes established by the volition of Alfred Nobel in 1895,[145] and is awarded to an author on the footing of their trunk of work, rather than to, or for, a detail work itself.[note 2] Other literary prizes for which all nationalities are eligible include: the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Man Booker International Prize, Pulitzer Prize, Hugo Award, Guardian First Volume Award and the Franz Kafka Prize.

See also [edit]

  • Library
  • Literary agent
  • Literary element
  • Literary magazine
  • Reading
  • Rhetorical modes
  • Scientific discipline fiction § As serious literature
  • Colloquial literature

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within the field and has given rise to philological battles over its meaning in Ancient Greece.[26]
  2. ^ However, in some instances a piece of work has been cited in the explanation of why the award was given.

References [edit]

  1. ^ "Literature: definition". Oxford Learner'southward Dictionaries.
  2. ^ "Oral literature". Encyclopaedia Britannica. ; meet likewise Homer.
  3. ^ a b "literature | Definition, Characteristics, Genres, Types, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  4. ^ a b OED
  5. ^ "literature (northward.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 9 Feb 2014.
  6. ^ Meyer, Jim (1997). "What is Literature? A Definition Based on Prototypes". Work Papers of the Summer Found of Linguistics and Academy of N Dakota Session. 41 (1). Retrieved 11 February 2014. [ dead link ]
  7. ^ Finnegan, Ruth (1974). "How Oral Is Oral Literature?". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 37 (one): 52–64. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00094842. JSTOR 614104. S2CID 190730645. (subscription required)
  8. ^ Leitch et al., The Norton Album of Theory and Criticism, 28
  9. ^ Eagleton 2008, p. nine.
  10. ^ Biswas, Critique of Poetics, 538
  11. ^ "Oral literature". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  12. ^ a b John Miles Foley. "What's in a Sign" (1999). Eastward. Anne MacKay (ed.). Signs of Orality. BRILL Academic. pp. 1–ii. ISBN978-9004112735.
  13. ^ Francis, Norbert (2017). Bilingual and multicultural perspectives on poetry, music and narrative: The science of art. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
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Bibliography [edit]

  • A.R. Biswas (2005). Critique of Poetics (vol. 2). Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN978-81-269-0377-1.
  • Jeremy Black; Graham Cunningham; Eleanor Robson, eds. (2006). The literature of ancient Sumer. Oxford: OUP. ISBN978-0-19-929633-0.
  • Cain, William Eastward.; Finke, Laurie A.; Johnson, Barbara East.; McGowan, John; Williams, Jeffrey J. (2001). Vincent B. Leitch (ed.). The Norton Album of Theory and Criticism . Norton. ISBN978-0-393-97429-four.
  • Eagleton, Terry (2008). Literary Theory: An Introduction (Ceremony, 2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-one-4051-7921-eight.
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism . Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-43878-0.
  • Hogan, P. Colm (2011). What Literature Teaches United states of america nigh Emotion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Foster, John Lawrence (2001), Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology, Austin: University of Texas Press, p. xx, ISBN978-0-292-72527-0
  • Giraldi, William (2008). "The Novella'south Long Life" (PDF). The Southern Review: 793–801. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2014.
  • Goody, Jack (2006). "From Oral to Written: An Anthropological Breakthrough in Storytelling". In Franco Moretti (ed.). The Novel, Volume 1: History, Geography, and Culture. Princeton: Princeton UP. p. xviii. ISBN978-0-691-04947-two.
  • Paris, B.J. (1986). 3rd Force Psychology and the Study of Literature. Cranbury: Associated University Press.
  • Preminger, Alex; et al. (1993). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics . US: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-02123-2.
  • Ross, Trevor (1996). "The Emergence of "Literature": Making and Reading the English Canon in the Eighteenth Century."" (PDF). ELH. 63 (2): 397–422. doi:10.1353/elh.1996.0019. S2CID 170813833. Retrieved 9 Feb 2014.

Further reading [edit]

  • Bonheim, Helmut (1982). The Narrative Modes: Techniques of the Curt Story. Cambridge: Brewer. An overview of several hundred short stories.
  • Gillespie, Gerald (Jan 1967). "Novella, nouvelle, novella, short novel? — A review of terms". Neophilologus. 51 (i): 117–127. doi:10.1007/BF01511303. S2CID 162102536.
  • Wheeler, L. Kip. "Periods of Literary History" (PDF). Carson-Newman University. Retrieved 18 March 2014. Cursory summary of major periods in literary history of the Western tradition.

External links [edit]

  • Project Gutenberg Online Library
  • Internet Book List similar to IMDb merely for books
  • Internet Archive Digital eBook Collection

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature